Enforcing Orthodoxy
A History of Censorship and Book Destruction in Islamic Governance
Introduction
Islam presents itself as a religion of preserved truth, yet throughout history, Islamic governments have often relied on censorship, book destruction, and intellectual suppression to enforce religious orthodoxy. This article examines how Islamic rulers — from the Rashidun Caliphate to modern nation-states — have censored dissent, destroyed theological works, and controlled religious narratives to maintain ideological conformity.
1. The Uthmanic Recension: Burning Qur’anic Variants
One of the earliest and most significant acts of religious censorship occurred under Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE).
"Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Qur'anic materials be burnt."
— Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith 4987
As regional differences in Qur’anic recitation arose, Uthman standardized a single version and burned all other manuscripts, including personal codices by companions like Ibn Mas‘ud. This act was not merely administrative but an authoritarian measure to suppress divergent Qur’anic readings and interpretations.
2. Suppression of Muʿtazilite Rationalism
The Muʿtazila, a school of Islamic theology emphasizing reason and free will, was initially promoted by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833). However, the tide turned with al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861), who:
Ended the Mihna (Inquisition) that enforced Muʿtazilite doctrine.
Banned Muʿtazilite teachings.
Likely facilitated the loss and destruction of Muʿtazilite texts over time.
Ibn al-Rawandi, a radical critic of Islam, lost most of his works due to suppression by later scholars and political powers. His critiques of prophecy, revelation, and miracles survive only through hostile refutations.
Reference: Josef van Ess, Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra (1991)
3. Sunni-Shiite Rivalries and Censorship
Theological and political rivalries between Sunni and Shiite dynasties also fueled censorship:
The Fatimid Caliphate (Ismaili Shiite) in Egypt promoted its doctrine and suppressed Sunni orthodoxy.
Saladin (12th century) reasserted Sunni control after defeating the Fatimids and:
Burned Ismaili texts.
Established Sunni madrasas to re-educate the public.
Source: Heinz Halm, The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning (1997)
4. The Almohad Caliphate: Anti-Rationalist Purge
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Almohads, a puritanical Berber dynasty in North Africa and Spain, enforced rigid Islamic orthodoxy:
Banned non-Almohad religious texts.
Exiled or censored rationalist philosophers like Averroes (Ibn Rushd).
Publicly burned books deemed heretical.
Ironically, Averroes' work survived largely due to translations preserved in Latin Europe, not the Islamic world.
Reference: Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy (2004)
5. The Ottoman Empire: Delay and Control of the Printing Press
Despite being one of the longest-lasting Islamic empires, the Ottomans were highly suspicious of printing:
Arabic printing was banned from the 15th century until 1729.
The ulema feared the spread of unregulated interpretations.
Certain Sufi, Shiite, and philosophical works were restricted or banned depending on the sultan’s alignment.
Source: Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (1964)
6. Modern Censorship in Islamic States
Saudi Arabia
Enforces Wahhabi Sunni orthodoxy.
Bans or censors Shiite, Sufi, liberal, or secular literature.
Controls religious publishing through the Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta.
Iran
Enforces Twelver Shiite orthodoxy.
Bans Sunni works and suppresses Baháʼí and liberal Shia voices.
Dissenting clerics like Ayatollah Montazeri were placed under house arrest.
Egypt
Secular critics like Farag Foda (assassinated 1992) and Nasr Abu Zayd (exiled) faced bans and fatwas.
References:
Elie Kedourie, Afghanistan and the Muslim World (2002)
Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (1983)
Hamid Dabashi, Iran: A People Interrupted (2007)
Conclusion
From the burning of early Qur’anic manuscripts under Uthman to modern-day religious censorship in Saudi Arabia and Iran, Islamic governance has a long history of enforcing orthodoxy through suppression. The destruction or banning of dissenting theological views has not only shaped the trajectory of Islamic thought but also limited the diversity of voices within Muslim intellectual tradition. These actions stand in stark contrast to claims of universal truth grounded in free inquiry and rationality.
No comments:
Post a Comment