This Is Islam Uncovered

This power dynamic changed with the emergence of modern Saudi Arabia in the 20th century

The emergence of modern Saudi Arabia in the 20th century marked a dramatic shift in the power dynamic surrounding Mecca and Medina, two of Islam’s holiest cities, as well as the broader Islamic world’s political landscape. Prior to the formation of Saudi Arabia, the Ottoman Empire had long controlled the Hijaz region, including Mecca and Medina, where the Kaaba and the Prophet’s Mosque are located. The shift in power with the rise of Saudi Arabia fundamentally changed the political, religious, and cultural significance of these sacred sites.

1. The End of Ottoman Control and the Rise of Saudi Arabia

A. The Decline of the Ottoman Empire

By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline, facing internal instability, territorial losses, and European interference. The Ottoman Sultan’s claim to the title of caliph had already been undermined by external forces and internal challenges, and the empire had lost much of its authority in the Islamic world, including over the holy cities.

During World War I (1914-1918), the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers against the Allied Forces. The Allies, including Britain and France, sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, and their support for Arab nationalism (through figures like Sharif Hussein of Mecca) ultimately led to the Arab Revolt (1916-1918). This revolt, aimed at ending Ottoman rule in the Arabian Peninsula, had the tacit backing of the Allies and helped dismantle Ottoman power.

B. The Emergence of Saudi Arabia

The Saudi state emerged in the early 20th century under the leadership of Ibn Saud (later King Abdulaziz Al Saud). The Saudi family had long been influential in the central Arabian Peninsula, and after a series of military campaigns, Ibn Saud successfully united various tribal groups and regions, including the Hijaz, under his rule.

In 1924, after the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I and the collapse of its authority in the region, Ibn Saud’s forces captured Mecca and Medina, putting an end to Ottoman rule over the holy cities. With the capture of Mecca, the Saudi Kingdom was officially established, and in 1932, it was named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

2. Saudi Arabia's Claim to the Custodianship of the Two Holy Mosques

A. Custodianship of Mecca and Medina

With the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of the Saudi Kingdom, the Al Saud family took on a new and central role in the Islamic world: the custodians of the two holiest sites in Islam, Mecca and Medina. This title is significant for several reasons:

Religious Legitimacy: The Al Saud family derived much of their religious legitimacy from their role as the custodians of the Kaaba and the Prophet’s Mosque. This position was crucial for their claim to Islamic leadership, especially in the wake of the Ottoman collapse. Unlike the Ottomans, who had been seen as the caliphs of the Islamic world, the Saudis focused more on their role as guardians of the holy places rather than claiming to be universal caliphs.
Symbol of Unity in the Muslim World: By controlling the Hajj pilgrimage and maintaining the sanctity of the holy cities, the Saudi monarchy sought to position itself as the leader of the Muslim world, a role it continues to assert. The title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques was formalized and became an important part of the Saudi royal identity, linking the family to the religious heritage of Islam.
Theological Authority: Saudi Arabia, under the rule of the Al Saud family, is closely associated with the Wahhabi movement, a conservative interpretation of Sunni Islam that emphasizes a strict interpretation of the Qur’an and the Hadith. The Wahhabi alliance provided the Saudi regime with significant religious legitimacy, as it drew on the religious purity and authority of Mecca and Medina to enforce its vision of Islam.

B. The Title of "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques"

The title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques (Arabic: Khadim al-Haramayn al-Sharifayn) became an official designation for the Saudi king. This title not only symbolizes the kingdom’s custodianship of Mecca and Medina, but it also reflects the central role of the Saudi monarchy in organizing and facilitating the Hajj pilgrimage. It distinguishes Saudi Arabia from other Muslim-majority nations, as it positions the king as the leading figure in the Muslim world’s most significant religious event.

Implication for Islamic Unity: The title also implies a duty to safeguard the unity of the Muslim ummah (global Muslim community). The Saudi monarchy’s ability to manage the Hajj pilgrimage and the two holy cities has made it an important religious authority, albeit without the broader caliphal responsibilities once held by the Ottomans.

3. The Role of Mecca in Saudi Domestic and Foreign Policy

A. Domestic Significance

For Saudi Arabia, Mecca is not only a religious capital but also a symbol of national identity and political power. The kingdom has invested heavily in the infrastructure surrounding Mecca to ensure it remains a central site of Islamic devotion.

Hajj Pilgrimage Management: The Saudi government organizes and manages the Hajj, ensuring the safety, comfort, and logistical aspects of the pilgrimage. This includes building large-scale infrastructure projects, such as hospitals, transportation networks, and pilgrim accommodations. Saudi Arabia’s investment in these projects demonstrates both the kingdom’s power and its commitment to Islam.
Economic Benefits: The Hajj is also a major economic driver for the kingdom. The influx of millions of pilgrims each year brings significant revenue from tourism, services, and related industries. The economic role of Mecca extends beyond the religious sphere, making it a central pillar of Saudi Arabia’s national economy.

B. Foreign Policy and Islamic Leadership

The Saudi monarchy also uses its custodianship of Mecca and Medina as a tool of foreign policy. The kingdom’s role as the guardian of the holy cities allows it to wield considerable influence in the Islamic world, especially among Sunni-majority nations.

Influence in the Muslim World: Saudi Arabia’s authority over the Hajj pilgrimage gives it a platform for religious diplomacy. The kingdom can engage with Muslim-majority countries through its religious influence, particularly during the Hajj season, when leaders from various countries come to Mecca.
Relations with the Sunni World: Saudi Arabia's guardianship of Mecca and Medina also helps it maintain influence over Sunni Islam. The Saudi regime has been a major sponsor of Sunni Islamic causes worldwide, including supporting organizations, educational institutions, and projects that align with Wahhabi and Salafi interpretations of Islam.
Political Legitimacy: The Saudis also use their religious authority to bolster their political legitimacy at home and abroad. The association with Mecca lends them a sense of divine approval, and this spiritual legitimacy helps the regime navigate both domestic opposition and international challenges.

4. Challenges to Saudi Control over Mecca

While Saudi Arabia’s custodianship of Mecca is central to its religious legitimacy, the kingdom’s position has been challenged at various points in the 20th and 21st centuries:

Islamic Movements: Radical Islamic movements, including those with Salafi, Wahhabi, and Jihadi orientations, have occasionally criticized the Saudi regime for its close ties to the West and for perceived corruption. These movements often see the Saudi monarchy’s rule as inconsistent with the true Islamic principles they espouse.
Regional Politics: Saudi Arabia’s relationship with Iran, a major Shia power, has been marked by tension, with Iran occasionally challenging Saudi Arabia’s role in the Islamic world. Iran has promoted its own vision of Islamic governance, which stands in contrast to the Saudi monarchy.

5. Conclusion: The Transformation of the Power Dynamic

With the rise of modern Saudi Arabia in the early 20th century, the custodianship of Mecca and Medina transitioned from the Ottoman caliphate to the Saudi monarchy. This shift fundamentally changed the political and religious landscape of the Muslim world.

The Al Saud family established themselves as the defenders and caretakers of the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina, and the title of "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" became a central part of their national and religious identity.
Saudi Arabia’s control over the Hajj and its role in the management of the holy cities have allowed the kingdom to maintain significant religious and political influence in the Islamic world, even without claiming the title of caliph.