This Is Islam Uncovered

The Qur’an, Jihad, and the Glorification of Military Expansion

A Critical Examination

Introduction: The Qur’anic Celebration of Warfare

Islamic texts, particularly the Qur’an, contain verses that have been interpreted as glorifying military expansion. Among the most cited are the notorious “sword verse” (9:5) and the directive to fight non-Muslims until submission and jizya payment (9:29). These passages have been historically invoked to justify both defensive and offensive military campaigns, often framed as divinely sanctioned acts of merit.

The glorification of warfare in these texts is not merely incidental; it is a recurring motif intertwined with theological, political, and spiritual objectives. By presenting combat as a form of religious obedience, the Qur’an elevates military action from a human endeavor to a sacred duty. This essay examines the glorification of military expansion in Islam through the lens of Qur’anic text, historical context, classical theology, and the ethical implications of the injunctions.

I. Qur’anic Foundations of Military Command

1. Surah At-Tawbah (9:5): “The Sword Verse”

“And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them, and capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them…”

This verse is frequently cited as emblematic of Islam’s aggressive stance toward non-Muslims. However, the historical context is crucial. Surah At-Tawbah was revealed in the seventh year of the Hijra, near the end of Muhammad’s life. It addresses tribes in Arabia that had violated treaties with the nascent Muslim state.

Targeted Tribes: The Qur’an specifies exemptions for polytheists who honored treaties (9:4), indicating that 9:5 is not a universal command for indiscriminate violence.
Sacred Months: Warfare outside the sacred months was permitted under the Arab tribal code, while attacks during sacred months were forbidden. The Qur’an references this cultural context to justify military action only after these months passed.

Despite these qualifiers, the verse’s language is strikingly martial and direct, commanding killing, capture, siege, and ambush. The intensity of the language lends itself to a glorified depiction of combat, especially when combined with Qur’anic promises of spiritual reward (9:111).

2. Surah At-Tawbah (9:29): Fighting for Subjugation

“Fight those who do not believe in Allah…until they pay the jizya with willing submission and feel themselves subdued.”

This verse is less about immediate tribal retaliation and more about establishing Islamic authority over non-Muslims.

The Jizya Tax: Payment of jizya marked submission to the Muslim polity and exempted non-Muslims from military service.
Subjugation: The verse explicitly frames military action as a tool for political and religious domination.
Glorification: Like 9:5, the Qur’an frames participation in such military campaigns as spiritually meritorious, promising divine favor and reward.

Together, 9:5 and 9:29 establish a pattern: warfare is both divinely sanctioned and religiously rewarded, creating a theological framework for glorifying military expansion.

II. Historical Context: The Emergence of the Islamic State

Understanding the Qur’anic glorification of military action requires examining the historical context of 7th-century Arabia.

1. Tribal Society and Warfare

Arabia at the time was a tribal, raiding society. Frequent skirmishes, alliances, and betrayals were common. Military action was a practical necessity:

Defend tribal territory
Protect trade routes
Enforce treaties
Punish violations

The Qur’an’s martial passages can be seen as a response to these realities. By framing military action as divinely commanded, the Qur’an sanctified existing tribal norms, elevating them to a religious imperative.

2. The Role of Treaty Violations

Surah At-Tawbah repeatedly emphasizes the role of treacherous tribes. Polytheists who honored agreements were exempt from violence (9:4). Those who broke treaties were subject to military action (9:5).

This reinforces the notion that Qur’anic warfare was conditional, rather than indiscriminate.
Yet the condition serves as a rhetorical device, glorifying the military response as a morally righteous act of divine justice.

3. Early Expansion: From Arabia to the Levant

After Muhammad’s death, the Rashidun Caliphate expanded rapidly across Arabia, the Levant, and Persia. Military campaigns were often justified using 9:5 and 9:29, establishing a precedent of religiously framed conquest.

Political Objectives: Control trade routes, unify the Arabian Peninsula, and consolidate the Muslim polity.
Religious Justification: Campaigns were framed as fulfilling God’s command, rewarding participants with spiritual merit, and spreading Islamic authority.

The historical context demonstrates that Qur’anic glorification of warfare was intertwined with both pragmatic state-building and religious incentive structures.

III. Theological Rationalizations: Why Islam Glorifies Military Action

Islamic theologians developed a complex framework to justify and glorify military expansion.

1. Jihad as Struggle

Islamic jurisprudence defines jihad as a spectrum of struggle:

Greater Jihad: Personal spiritual effort toward piety
Lesser Jihad: Armed struggle in the path of God

By categorizing military action as “lesser jihad,” theologians placed combat under a religious and moral umbrella, framing it as both duty and virtue.

2. Divine Reward

Qur’an 9:111 explicitly ties participation in combat to spiritual reward:

“Indeed, Allah has purchased from the believers their lives and their properties [in exchange] for Paradise…”

This promise elevates military action from political necessity to spiritually meritorious endeavor, glorifying combat itself. Soldiers are not merely defending territory—they are engaging in a sacred act of obedience.

3. Enforcement of Divine Law

Military campaigns are framed as enforcing God’s law:

Punishing violators of treaties
Imposing jizya as a symbol of submission
Expanding the reach of Islamic governance

This theological framing converts warfare into a moral imperative, not merely a political tool, and thereby glorifies participation in conquest.

IV. Ethical and Logical Critiques

Even when historical and theological contexts are considered, Qur’anic glorification of warfare raises serious ethical and logical issues.

1. Collective Punishment

9:5 can be read as targeting entire tribes for the violations of some members. Modern ethics reject collective punishment, which undermines moral claims of divine justice.

2. Religious Coercion

9:29 ties political subjugation to religious submission. Non-Muslims under Muslim authority were either forced to convert, pay the jizya, or face military coercion—raising questions about freedom of conscience.

3. Moral Incentives for Violence

By promising divine reward for participation in military campaigns, the Qur’an glorifies killing in the path of God, framing aggression and conquest as morally virtuous. This creates a potential perverse incentive structure, rewarding combatants independent of ethical restraint.

4. Expansion vs. Defense

While early verses (2:190) emphasize defensive warfare, later passages (9:5, 9:29) are proactive, encouraging expansion, subjugation, and tribute collection. This raises the question: does the Qur’an glorify aggressive expansion in addition to defense? Historical application suggests it does.

V. Case Studies: Military Campaigns in Early Islam

1. Conquest of Mecca

Muhammad’s entry into Mecca in 630 CE combined military force with forgiveness, but the threat of violence remained.
Qur’anic passages like 9:5 provided justification for both punitive action and moral framing.

2. Rashidun and Umayyad Expansion

Campaigns across the Levant, Persia, and North Africa relied on Qur’anic justification for conquest.
Jizya (9:29) was systematically implemented to consolidate Islamic rule and finance the state.
These campaigns illustrate the fusion of religious glorification and political pragmatism.

VI. Patterns of Glorification

Analyzing Qur’anic verses, historical campaigns, and theological rationalizations reveals recurring patterns:

Religious Framing: Warfare is described as a sacred act commanded by God.
Spiritual Reward: Combatants receive divine merit and the promise of paradise.
Moral Justification: Killing and conquest are framed as enforcing justice or punishing treachery.
Political Consolidation: Expansion is justified as spreading Islamic governance and law.

This combination constitutes a systematic glorification of military expansion. Warfare is not merely tolerated—it is sanctified and rewarded.

VII. Modern Implications

1. Literalist Movements

Contemporary Salafi and jihadist movements frequently invoke 9:5 and 9:29 as scriptural justification for military campaigns, emphasizing divine reward and the duty to expand Islamic rule.

2. Reformist Responses

Modern reformist scholars reinterpret these verses historically, emphasizing defensive context and political limitations. Yet these reinterpretations face pushback from literalists who see them as undermining divine command.

3. Persistent Cognitive Tension

Even in modern Islamic thought, believers are instructed to view combat as both morally virtuous and strategically necessary, reflecting centuries-old patterns of glorification.

VIII. Conclusion: The Qur’an and the Moralization of Military Expansion

The Qur’an and Islamic tradition glorify military expansion by framing combat as:

Divinely mandated (9:5, 9:29)
Spiritually meritorious (9:111)
Politically justified (enforcing treaties, subjugating populations)

Historical context—tribal warfare, treaty enforcement, and state-building—explains some practical rationale. Yet theological framing transforms pragmatism into sacred virtue, elevating military action above mere human necessity.

Ethically, this raises serious questions: collective punishment, religious coercion, and incentivized violence all undermine claims of universal moral legitimacy. Logically, the Qur’anic framework conflates defense, revenge, and proactive expansion into a religiously glorified military ethic.

In short, Islam’s texts and early practices systematically glorify warfare, rewarding both obedience and conquest. The result is a permanent theological elevation of military expansion, which has shaped Islamic history and continues to influence contemporary debates over jihad, state authority, and religiously sanctioned violence.