This Is Islam Uncovered

How other states view the kingdom’s role as the custodian of Islam’s holiest sites

The role of Saudi Arabia as the custodian of Islam’s holiest sites (Mecca and Medina) is one of immense significance, not just to the Saudi monarchy but also to the broader Muslim world. Saudi Arabia's stewardship of these sacred cities grants it considerable influence in the Islamic world, but it also leads to a variety of reactions, ranging from respect and reverence to criticism and skepticism, depending on the political, religious, and geopolitical context. The perspectives of other Muslim-majority states on Saudi Arabia’s custodianship can generally be categorized into several broad themes:

1. Reverence and Acknowledgment of Saudi Arabia's Unique Role

For many Muslim-majority countries, Saudi Arabia’s custodianship of Mecca and Medina is regarded with respect, and the Kingdom is often seen as a central religious authority due to its role as the guardian of the Two Holy Mosques. This role bestows on Saudi Arabia a form of religious legitimacy and honor that places it at the heart of Islamic identity.

A. Sunni-Muslim Countries

Sunni-majority nations generally view Saudi Arabia’s role as custodian of Islam’s holiest sites as sacred and a significant honor. Countries like Egypt, Jordan, Pakistan, Turkey, and others have traditionally aligned with Saudi Arabia in recognizing its religious authority.
- Egypt, as the intellectual hub of the Sunni Islamic world, historically has close religious ties to Saudi Arabia. It respects the kingdom’s role in overseeing the Hajj pilgrimage and promoting Sunni religious unity. Egyptian scholars and institutions, such as Al-Azhar, often support Saudi Arabia in its role, even though there may be differences in political or social views.
- Pakistan and Indonesia, the world’s largest Muslim-majority countries, also recognize Saudi Arabia's leadership in Islamic affairs, particularly in organizing the Hajj and in managing the holy cities.
- Turkey, although often at odds with Saudi Arabia in terms of political influence in the broader Muslim world (especially regarding Syria and regional politics), still holds a strong respect for the Kingdom’s religious role as custodian.

B. Arab States and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

Arab nations, particularly those in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), view Saudi Arabia’s role as custodian of the holy cities with a sense of shared pride. The Kingdom is often seen as the leader of the Gulf, and its religious role bolsters its standing as the defender of Islam.
- However, there are some regional dynamics that occasionally create tensions. For example, the UAE and Qatar, though generally supportive of Saudi Arabia’s religious authority, sometimes have divergent views on political or religious leadership within the Sunni Muslim world.

2. Criticism from Rival Powers: Iran and Shia Islam

While Sunni-majority countries generally respect Saudi Arabia’s religious authority, its role is more controversial among Shia-majority countries, particularly Iran. Shia Islam has its own distinct religious practices and interpretations, and Saudi Arabia’s Wahhabi version of Sunni Islam often conflicts with Shia beliefs.

A. Iran’s Viewpoint

Iran, the largest Shia-majority country, is one of the most vocal critics of Saudi Arabia’s stewardship of Mecca and Medina. The relationship between Saudi Arabia and Iran has been historically marked by sectarian tensions, as the two countries represent the two major branches of Islam—Sunni and Shia. Iran has expressed several concerns regarding Saudi Arabia’s policies:
- Control of the Hajj: Iran has long criticized Saudi Arabia’s management of the Hajj pilgrimage, especially in relation to the safety of Iranian pilgrims. There have been incidents, such as the Hajj stampede in 2015, where hundreds of Iranian pilgrims were killed, leading to strains in relations between the two countries. Iran has at times accused Saudi Arabia of poor management of the pilgrimage.
- Religious Exclusivity: Iran’s religious leaders often argue that Saudi Arabia’s strict Wahhabi interpretation of Islam should not be imposed on all Muslims, particularly in Mecca and Medina. They claim that the puritanical practices of Wahhabism marginalize Shia Muslims, whose practices and religious sites are often excluded or restricted.
- Rivalry for Islamic Leadership: Iran, particularly after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, has sought to assert its own leadership over the Islamic world—a role historically held by Saudi Arabia, particularly through its custodianship of the holy sites. This rivalry has intensified over the years, with both nations vying for influence in the broader Muslim world, especially in regions like Syria, Iraq, and Yemen.

B. Shia Communities in Other Countries

Shia communities in countries like Lebanon, Bahrain, Iraq, and Pakistan often feel marginalized by Saudi Arabia’s Wahhabi policies and, by extension, its management of the holy cities. In particular, they argue that Shia pilgrims face discrimination when performing the Hajj or Umrah, and they call for more inclusive practices that respect Shia rituals.
- For example, during the Hajj, some Shia pilgrims have expressed frustrations over the fact that certain practices, such as the veneration of saints or the commemoration of Ashura, are discouraged or even banned in Saudi Arabia due to their conflict with Wahhabi teachings.

3. Geopolitical and Diplomatic Concerns

Saudi Arabia’s religious role also places it at the center of diplomatic concerns in the broader Muslim world. Countries may support Saudi Arabia’s custodianship on a religious level, but their political or economic relations with the Kingdom can be more complex.

A. Pakistan and Indonesia

While Pakistan and Indonesia support Saudi Arabia’s custodianship, they sometimes seek to balance this relationship with their own domestic policies. In Pakistan, for example, there is political pressure from Shia communities who may criticize Saudi Arabia’s sectarian policies. Similarly, in Indonesia, the Muslim population is divided between Sunni and Shia practices, and some groups call for greater religious tolerance in the holy cities.

B. Egypt and Jordan

Egypt and Jordan generally respect Saudi Arabia’s religious leadership, given their shared Sunni background. However, political differences can occasionally strain this relationship. For instance, Egypt’s leadership has historically tried to position itself as a counterbalance to Saudi Arabia’s religious influence, often aligning with Qatar and Turkey on various political issues, despite agreeing with the Kingdom’s custodianship in Mecca.
Jordan, while respecting Saudi Arabia’s leadership over the holy cities, has also sought to enhance its own religious stature in the region, often highlighting its Hashemite lineage, which claims descent from the Prophet Muhammad, as a source of legitimacy.

4. Saudi Arabia’s Strategic Use of Its Religious Authority

Saudi Arabia understands the influence it wields as the custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and it often uses this influence for strategic purposes. For instance, during moments of crisis in the Muslim world, such as in the case of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Saudi Arabia can leverage its religious leadership to bring attention to the cause, encourage solidarity among Muslim-majority states, and exert pressure on global powers.

Financial and Diplomatic Leverage: Saudi Arabia has also used its position as custodian to strengthen diplomatic ties with various Muslim countries, especially through the Hajj. Pilgrims from many countries depend on the Kingdom for logistical support, and in return, the Saudi government has often been able to exercise influence over their foreign policies, especially in areas like oil and regional alliances.

5. Conclusion: A Complex Role in the Global Islamic Landscape

Overall, the role of Saudi Arabia as the custodian of Islam’s holiest sites is widely acknowledged in the Muslim world, but its influence is not without contention. Many Sunni-majority states respect and support Saudi Arabia’s religious leadership, but sectarian rivalries, especially with Shia-majority Iran, complicate the situation. Additionally, Saudi Arabia’s strategic use of its religious authority plays a key role in shaping its relations with other Muslim-majority countries, balancing religious duties with political and economic concerns.